Constans II
- Early Life and Accession
- Reign and Foreign Policy
- Controversy over Monothelitism
- Conflict with Pope Martin I
- Death and Legacy
Early Life and Accession
Constans II was the son of Emperor Constantine III Heraclius and Empress Gregoria. He was born as Heraclius and later crowned as Constantine. After the exile and death of Heraclius II, Constans became the sole emperor of the Byzantine Empire in 641.
Reign and Foreign Policy
Constans II faced significant external challenges during his reign. Egypt fell to the Arabs in 642, and Armenia and Cappadocia were conquered by 647. In 654, the Arabs conducted their first naval expedition to Crete.
Despite these setbacks, Constans II launched a successful campaign against the Slavs in the Balkans in 658. However, his attempt to reconquer Italy from the Lombards in 663 ended in a heavy defeat at the Battle of Forli.
Controversy over Monothelitism
Constans II was deeply involved in the religious controversy over Monothelitism, which held that Christ had only one will instead of two. Pope Theodore I vehemently opposed this doctrine, which was rejected at the Lateran Council in 649. However, Constans II issued the decree "Typos" in 648, which forbade further debate on the issue.
Conflict with Pope Martin I
The Typos led to a conflict with Pope Martin I, who refused to accept it. Constans II had Martin arrested in 653 and exiled to Crimea, where he died of starvation in 655. The persecution of Martin I further strained relations between the Byzantine Empire and the papacy.
Death and Legacy
Constans II's reign was marred by political instability and unpopularity. Suspicious of his younger brother Theodosius, he had him killed in 660. Fearing retribution from the people of Constantinople, he moved his residence to Syracuse, Sicily.
In 668, Constans II was assassinated by conspirators, possibly bribed by the Franks. His death plunged the Byzantine Empire into a political crisis. His cousin Mizizius briefly seized power before being overthrown by the Armenian general Mezezius.
