Mark Antoniy Roman commander, triumvir (from 43), tribune of the people (49) Country: Italy

1. Biography of Mark Antony
2. Early Life and Rise to Power
3. Association with Julius Caesar
4. Conflict with Octavian
5. The Second Triumvirate

Biography of Mark Antony

Mark Antony (83 BC - 30 BC) was a Roman general, triumvir (from 43 BC), and tribune of the plebs (49 BC). He served as consul alongside Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Antony committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian in the Battle of Actium.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Mark Antony, also known as Antony, was born in 83 BC to a praetor and the grandson of a rhetorician named Antony. He was a relative of Caesar through his mother, Julia. In his youth, Antony led a dissipated life and fled to Greece to escape his creditors. While in Greece, he began to study philosophy and rhetoric and later served as the cavalry commander under the proconsul Gabinius in Syria. Antony displayed courage and skill during campaigns against Aristobulus in Palestine and in Egypt, where he assisted in installing Ptolemy Auletes on the throne.

Association with Julius Caesar

In 54 BC, Antony arrived in Gaul to join Julius Caesar and, with Caesar's support, he became quaestor in 52 BC. He held this position until 50 BC when he returned to Rome. There, he became a tribune of the plebs and an augur. As a staunch supporter of Caesar, Antony defended him in the Senate in January 49 BC alongside his fellow tribune Cassius Longinus. However, their intervention was unsuccessful, and they were forced to flee the city and seek refuge in Caesar's camp. This incident gave Caesar cause to declare war. Antony was entrusted with command of the troops in Italy and led a strong force from Italy to Illyria, where Caesar awaited him. In the Battle of Pharsalus, Antony commanded the left flank. After the battle, he returned to Rome with part of his army. When Caesar assumed dictatorial powers, he appointed Antony as his magister equitum. However, their relationship soured upon Caesar's return to Rome as Antony's actions displeased the dictator. Antony later married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius, and when Caesar returned from Spain, Antony regained his favor. In 44 BC, Antony, alongside Caesar, was appointed consul but failed in his attempt to convince the people to declare Caesar king. Shortly thereafter, Caesar was assassinated, and Antony was saved from the same fate by the intervention of Brutus. Taking advantage of the chaos, Antony seized control of the state treasury and the wealth and documents of Caesar. At the same time, he formed an alliance with Lepidus, who brought a portion of his army into the city and delivered a passionate speech over Caesar's body, inciting the mob to seek revenge against the assassins. The assassins had to flee, and for a time, Antony became the ruler of Rome.

Conflict with Octavian

Antony, like others, underestimated Octavian, Caesar's adopted heir and eventual rival. Initially, Antony tried to bypass him, but when the people appointed Octavian, instead of Macedonia, as ruler of Cisalpine Gaul and a large part of Transalpine Gaul, Antony openly opposed him, accusing his rival of attempting to assassinate him with the help of hired assassins. Octavian took advantage of Antony's absence, called the legions he had summoned from Macedonia, and gathered a significant force of Caesar's veterans. At the same time, he managed to convince some of Antony's legions to defect to his side. Antony then retreated to Cisalpine Gaul and planned to take control of the province from Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators who had been appointed by Caesar. He besieged Brutus in Mutina, where Brutus had sought refuge. During this time, Octavian revealed his talent as a shrewd diplomat by declaring himself a supporter of the republic and joining the Senatorial party led by Cicero. Cicero delivered a powerful speech against Antony, and the Senate took several measures against him, treating him as an enemy of the state, even though he had not yet been officially declared as such. Octavian was given command of the army sent against Antony, and together with the consuls Hirtius and Pansa, he took the field. In mid-April 43 BC, Antony defeated Pansa near Mutina but was subsequently defeated by Hirtius and Octavian a few days later, resulting in his flight and the subsequent Battle of Mutina. Both consuls lost their lives in these battles. Antony fled through the Apennines to Etruria and then proceeded to southern Gaul, which was under the rule of Lepidus. Lepidus pretended to join Antony, claiming that his troops had forced him to do so. His example was followed by Pollio and Plancus. Under Antony's leadership, a significant army was gathered, and he led 17 legions and 10,000 cavalry into Italy. Leaving six legions in Gaul, he marched at the head of his forces towards Italy.

The Second Triumvirate

In 40 BC, a new division of the Roman world took place in Brundisium. Antony received the East, while Octavian took control of the West. Lepidus, according to the agreement made in Philippi, was assigned Africa. A treaty was also signed with Sextus Pompey, who ruled over the Mediterranean, granting him Sicily, Sardinia, and the Peloponnese. After this, Antony returned to the East, where his lieutenant Ventidius was achieving victory against the Parthians. However, Antony's indulgence in pleasure-seeking activities and his neglect of state affairs led him to squander provinces and entire kingdoms at the feet of Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. In 36 BC, he launched a campaign against the Parthians, but it ended in failure. Upon his return, Antony celebrated a triumphant entry into Alexandria, displaying his defeated enemy, the Armenian king Artavasdes, and claiming victory. Octavian, who had managed to subdue Sextus Pompey and eliminate Lepidus, capitalized on Antony's behavior and incited the anger of the Roman people against him. A war between the two rivals became inevitable, and both sides began to prepare for it. Antony wasted time in endless celebrations, diverting himself from his responsibilities, while Octavian relentlessly pursued his goal. Antony openly broke with Octavia, which caused widespread outrage, as Octavia was respected by all. The arrogance of the foreign queen Cleopatra was universally detested. Rome declared war on Egypt, and Antony was stripped of all his titles, including the consulship he was due to hold in the following year. Both sides concentrated their forces, and in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Antony lost control of the world. He followed Cleopatra, who shamefully fled, and for seven consecutive days, his land forces waited in vain for their leader. Finally, they surrendered to the victor. Antony went to Libya, where he assembled a considerable army, on which he pinned his last hope. However, his troops betrayed him and joined Octavian's side. Overwhelmed by grief, Antony was barely restrained from committing suicide. He returned to Egypt, where he initially lived a solitary life, but soon succumbed to revelries in Cleopatra's company. Their festivities were interrupted by the news of Octavian's approach in 31 BC. Despite all of Antony's previous victories, Octavian rejected all offers of peace. When Octavian arrived at the gates of Alexandria, Antony, leading his cavalry, launched a victorious sortie and repelled the enemy. However, a subsequent betrayal by the Egyptian fleet and his own cavalry, coupled with a crushing defeat suffered by his infantry, made Antony fear being betrayed by Cleopatra herself. Upon hearing the news of Cleopatra's death, which she had falsely proclaimed, Antony took his own life by falling on his sword. Thus perished a man undoubtedly endowed with brilliant abilities, a powerful orator, and a skilled ruler capable of captivating the hearts of people. However, he lacked a firm will, being a slave to his passions. Nevertheless, he was capable of making decisive decisions and engaging in actions full of energy. His abilities outweighed his character, which represented a combination of the most opposite elements and, therefore, lacked integrity and unity.